LANGUAGE DOCUMENTATION OF CHAM

Chapter One
Introduction:
Language documentation is the process of recording through writing or other forms the history, linguistic property and other peculiar information about a language spoken by a given speech community for the sake of posterity and revitalization. This kind of exercise “plays an important role in maintaining and revitalizing a language, helps in training native speakers as language teachers and writers and leads to future research” (Juliette: 2007). It provides the foundation on which linguistic analysis can be made from a citable set of materials in the language.
Unless a language is documented it can not be develop and when a language does not have the privilege of being documented and developed through conscious and concerted efforts of the language speakers or any other person or group of persons so interested in such a noble course, the language may be gradually given up In favour of more prestigious languages and with time it may be forgotten completely. These described the situation with the language, Cham as fewer people who are sons and daughters of this enthralling language speak it. Children as well as adults find it difficult if not impossible to read and write in the language. They abandoned it for the more prestigious languages like English and Hausa. It is obvious that Cham needs to be rescued from going into extinction. This dissertation is an attempt in that direction to contribute to the few literatures written mostly in this form to revitalize, develop and propagate the language.

BRIEF HISTORY OF CHAM AND HER PEOPLE
Cham is a small minority ethnic group found in Balanga local government area of Gombe state along Yola road, south of the state and Numan local government area of Adamawa state. Originally, ‘Cham’ is known as ‘Chum’ meaning brother. However, as a result of wrong pronunciation by the traders and neighboring tribes who find it difficult to pronounce ‘Chum’ correctly, instead pronounced it as ‘Cham’ which now becomes widely used”(Albashi: 1990).
According to Hassan Tom Firi quoted by Albashi (1990), the people of Cham migrated from Yamel in the east with some tribes like Lunguda, Tula, and Dadiya at about 1777. They came to Africa through Egypt and setlled at Wanda. As a result of poor agricultural land, bad climate and weather, the people of Cham being good agriculturalists decided to move from Wanda to a free and fertile land at Fitilai (Kuntur) in 1797. At Fitilai, Baba Dan Bulo, an informant said, “the people of Cham settled in groups according to their clans. In this small clans, ther is a type of disperse, cross or integrated relationship which is showed by ties of reputed kingship, chieftaincy and religious complexities. Major among these settlements were Fitilai to Bwelimi, and Fitilai to Dijimi, out of which the following small clans emerged: Jabe, Bwelimi, Kwasim, Lebe, Dungurang and Tiksir. These clans believed in peace and have a special love and care for one another and therefore regard themselves as brothers (Shete) plural of Chum, brother”.
According to another informant, Nurudin A.A., what precipitated the movement from Fitilai to Bwelimi and from Fitilai to Dijimi is conflict. He stated, “the movements marked the beginning of dialectal variation: one had settled at Mwona that is Bwelimi and the other at Tiksir which is kindiyo. These two have extended their territory to Bachama land in Adamawa state known as green village in Numan local government and Monatari in Lamurde local government. They finally settled in Kindiyo, Mwona present day Cham district in 1880”.
Cham people are majorly farmers, however today, they are found in virtually every sphere of public and private businesses. Traditionally, they are animists and ancestralogists, but in recent times, many of them have embraced Christianity and Islam.
“Apart from being a name of a tribe, Cham is also the name of one of the towns of the tribe. To the east, Cham is bounded by Lunguda. To the north, by Bachama and Pere. To the west by Waja and to the south by Tula and Dadiya tribes respectively. Cham is made up of many villages: Loja, Bwelimi, Dongaje, Kutare, Kwarge, Kuntur, Yolde, Kwasi, Lebe, Tiksir and Yadi to mention but a few. Cham people also refer to themselves as ‘Dijim’, a plural form of ‘Nidiji’ which connotes something that appeared or come out of the earth’s deep roots which can not be overcome”(Albashi, 1990).

LANGUAGE FAMILY.
(Greenberg: 1963) classified African languages into four language phyla: “Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Khoisan and Niger-Congo”. Out of these four and according to Ethnologue.com, Cham appertains to the Niger-Congo group which has according to (Encarta: 2009) an estimated 300 to 400 million speakers across West Africa and Central African Republic.

CHAM DIALECTS
According to these informants, mr and mrs Maila Odah. There are three mutually intelligible dialects in Cham language: Mwona dialect, Loja dialect and Cham dialect. These dialectal variations came as a result of migration. Generally, dialect describes a language variety where a user’s regional or social background appears in his/her accent, use of vocabulary and grammar; the dialects of Cham is not exception, but do not constitute a barrier for comprehension as there is mutual understanding despite the distinction in lexical items, phonology and syntax.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Cham language is no longer actively spoken by the younger members of the language community and very little literatures were written in or about the language. These situations are not favourable to an endangered language like Cham. If this language must survive, then there is the need to document it so that it can be revitalized and developed. The Cham Language and Bible Translation Committee state that “children from Cham or with Cham origin are not able to speak the language; they are not able to read and write in it. Instead, they use English and Hausa. This is indeed a precarious circumstance that threatens not only the survival of the language, but the rich cultural heritage and traditional values of the people. It is in this respect therefore, that the researcher attempts the documentation of some aspects of the Cham language.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION
This research investigation is limited to the linguistic items or vocabularies of Cham, Cham sound systems and basic sentence structure. The grounds covered by these sets carefully scrutinized vocabularies are words associated with the following domains: Wild Animals, domestic Animals, Bee-keeping, Fishing-Hunting-weapons, Horse and Equipments, Plants, Trees, Agriculture, Compound, Kitchen, Food, Brewery, Clothes and Jewelry, Weaving and Dyeing, Plaiting and Basketry, Leather work and Leather goods, Metal-working, Pottery, Wood-working, Market, Human being and Kinship Terms, Government and Law, Music, Dance and Play, Religion, Disease, Time and Reason, Environment and Finally Numbers.
These words are given side by side their English counterparts to facilitate the meaning behind each word.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This dissertation aims to attain the following:
1. The documentation of some aspect of the Cham Language for posterity and revitalization.
2. To contribute to the development of the Language.
3. To make effort toward making sure it does not become a victim of extinction.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Every language carries with it, the traditional values, norms and cultural heritage of the people. It is a marker of identity that gives a people a sense of belonging in the world. When this language goes into extinction, the peoples’ culture and traditions will also vanish with it because it is embodied in it. At the end, it becomes impossible to trace the existence of this group of people. Drawing from this perspective therefore, the significance of this long essay is the preservation of the language, culture and tradition of the people of Cham, a part or segment of human existence. It will also contribute to the body of human language especially linguistics by showcasing the unique and rich linguistic property of a language hitherto unknown.

METHODOLOGY
For the purpose of this project, the researcher made used of two methods for the collection of data. These are: Oral interview and questionnaire. The oral interview was to aid easy flow of communication between the researcher and the aged persons who are unable to read the questionnaire. It was also considered that using the questionnaire method only will not give sufficient coverage hence the need to combine the two methods. After the collation, the data are carefully analyzed by presenting them in their sub-group along side their English translation.


Chapter Two
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION:
This chapter attempts to review relevant literatures that are related to endangered languages and language documentation. Nonetheless, before going any further, it is imperative to know what a language is. Language is the repository of the culture, norm and ideology of a people and it serves as the means of transmitting knowledge from generation to generation. Austin (2008: pp 4) says, “Each language expresses the history, culture, society and identity of the people who speak it and each is a unique way of talking about the world”. “All languages have developed to express the needs of their users and in a sense all languages are equal” (Crystal: 1987, pp 91). Once man is without language, he is fundamentally reduced from his elevated position of a human being.
Sadly, some languages are not able to live-up to those responsibilities or functions not because they are intrinsically deficient, but because the language speakers failed to engage it into its full utility. This circumstance is peculiar to series of languages around the globe that heavily encroach on their potency. Thus, these languages start fading away gradually into oblivion.

ENDANGERED LANGUAGE
According to Unesco’s Adhoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages, “a situation where speakers of a language cease to use the language, instead use I in increasingly reduced number of communicative and ceased to pass it from one generation to the next constitute language endangerment” (2003: par, 2). Anthony Woodbury (2006: par, 2) is of the notion that “an endangered language is one that is likely to become extinct in the near future. Many languages are failing out of use and are being replaced by others that are more widely used in the region or nation”. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia on its part sees endangered language as “a language that is at risk of failing out of use. When a language is not spoken or learned by children, then that language is endangered” (par, 1). For Philipp Strazny (2005: pp, 212) endangered language or what he calls ‘language attrition’ is “the situation where the native language is used in increasingly fewer domains with few functions such as at home, with friends, and at social events”.
Linguists as stated by Whalen and Harrison (2000: par, 7, 8 & 9) divided languages into three categories: Healthy, Endangered and Extinct. A healthy language they say is “one that is currently being learned by children as a first language. Healthy languages are generally used in all works of life; at home, in school, at work, and in other private and public settings. Endangered language is further divided into various levels of endangerment. In the first level of endangerment in which language is still considered healthy, the percentage of children who speak the language typically falls below the percentage of the adults who speak the language. If parents stop or are forced to stop teaching their children their native language, the language may become severely endangered. The most endangered languages are called Moribund. A moribund language still has native speakers, but it is not being learned by children; often, just a few elderly speakers remained. An extinct Language on the other hand is one with no living native speakers”.
Following the above classification, Cham language appertains to the moribund class. This position is based on the fact that children no longer learn the language; there are just a handful of elderly and adult speakers. Cham as a language has unfortunately fallen into this precarious situation which threatens not only the survival, security, and existence of the language, but also the global linguistic canon and world’s cultural diversity. What precipitated this condition is the long years or period of neglect combined with the exclusive used of Hausa and English for conducting their daily activities in school, politics, business/trading, religious worship and social events. Indeed, there is also the spread of the mass media that brought an insidious new threat on it. To day even the remotest house in Cham has either a radio or television or both. The language often utilized in these media from morning to evening is Hausa and/or English. This by it self has a psychological effect on the children and adults who will graciously imbibe it as the language of prestige and of the elite which they home to reach.
Crucial to all the views aforementioned are:
The limited use of the language by its speakers in their daily activities.
The language’s operative competence is restricted to fewer domains such as ceremonial and formal functions.
The language is not transmitted to younger generation.
A Unesco report (1993) has it that half of the approximated 6700 languages spoken today are in danger of disappearing before the century ends. In 1992, another Unesco report states that “the International Congress of Linguist (CIPL) meeting in Quebec Canada discussed the topic of endangered languages as a result of which it formed the endangered language committee under the authority of Unesco. In 1993 this committee came up with “The Red Book of Endangered Languages”, which was published by Unesco and contained a comprehensive lists of the world’s languages currently facing extinction and endangerment. Hundreds and thousands of languages facing extinction and endangerment are reported in this Red Book of Endangered Languages. Some of these endangered languages in Nigeria include: Bassa, Kontagora, Bete, Fali of Baissa, Defaka, Kiong, Kuducamo, Labir,Lere, Lufu,Luri, Njerep, Odut, Putai, Rono and many others. Whalen and Harrison (2000) also reported that “as the new millennium comes to a close more than 6000 distinct human languages are in used world wide. Many linguists predict that the year 2100, only half of the languages will be spoken, a lost of one language every twelve days”.
Linguist, M. Krauss (2007) argues that for a language to survive it needs at least 100,000 speakers. Krauss view puts emphasis on just the number of speakers that are available to speak the language. However, this can not provide us with sufficient assurance. For example, linguist, L.R. Storto (2003) who worked on endangered languages in Brazil says that “the ‘Karitiana’ language in Brazil has only 185 speakers out of a total population of 191. Even though 185 is not a large number, Karitiana speakers both young and old make up 96% of the population of the community. Yet, the language is not endangered because there is transmission and active usage of the language by the younger generation. At the other extreme end, Yiddish, the international language of the Jews from Central to Eastern Europe until the middle of the 20th century, with around 3 million speakers is considered by linguists as an endangered language. This is as a result of its similitude position with Cham language with many elderly speakers with no children learners or the language is not transmitted to the younger generation. Austin (2008: par, 2) points out to this truism when he says that “in order to judge if a language is endangered, the number of the speakers is less important, what is important is its transmission to younger generation”.
The implication of all these is that adults and children are a veritable medium that provide the safest way of promoting, sustaining and propagating a language. Nonetheless, as Philipp (2005: par, 2) states, “language vitality is ranked in terms of number and generations of speakers”. It is this that Crystal (1987: 281) meant when he posits that “for a language to count as living, there obviously have to be active speakers alive who use it. Therefore, simply counting the number of speakers is not the best way to decide if a language will survive or not. Rather, the vitality of a language depends on how well a language is transmitted to younger generation”.

REASONS BEHIND LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT
The causes of language endangerment are complex and vary with individual situations. In Cham territories for example, the primary cause is language shift, a situation where speakers of a language cease to speak their native or local language in favour of the language that is perceived to be the most influential culture politically, socially and economically. The situation usually comes into being when there are no such values or prestige attached to the local or heritage language. In most cases Philipp (2005: 286) says, “Such a shift can occur over a number of generations; the oldest generation, the grand parents speak the heritage language as their first and primary language. The middle generation has some knowledge about the local language, but uses the dominant/influential language primarily, and the younger generation has little or no knowledge of the local language and may at most know a few words or phrases”.
This state of affairs has greatly reduced the performative abilities of such languages like Cham; thereby, forcing them to play a second fiddle in an environment where Hausa and English are becoming the order of the day
Accordingly, Crystal (1987: 111) remarks that “economic prospects attract younger members of a community away from the villages; so also educational pursued. Inevitably, circumstance will create the motive for them to start using the language of their new environment”. This idea of adapting to the language of ones new environment is inevitable according to Melting Pot Theory. One can further buttress this point by looking at Nigeria’s Home Movies which only show young men and women progressing after they desert their villages for the city centre. This is sending wrong signals to the youths. Austin (2008, par, 1) “This quest for human progress which they (the community people) feel they can not locate in their local language drive them away from their major essence and means of universal identity to what they feel can provide them with the much craved progress”. This is what Philipp (2005: 287) meant by saying that “members of a language community often believed that knowledge of the dominant language like Hausa in the North and Pidgin in the south is a necessary tool for success in the dominant culture and that knowledge of the heritage language is a hindrance to socio-economic advancement”. It is a common phenomenon today that people only tend to speak languages that are socially and economically useful. Anything contrary they look at it as a waste of time.
The situation is further compounded as local celebrities are themselves not encouraging the younger ones to speak in their local languages; instead they speak Hausa, Pidgin or English depending on their regional orientation. This situation should not be slightly considered because these celebrities are a major influence to the younger ones.
In addition, parents sometimes don’t encourage their children by teaching them their local language. In this case, the child is left with no option but to learn the language readily available to him at his disposal in school, in the street, at church or mosque and on the radio or television. This breached in generation to generation transmission of the local language seriously jeopardize its existence.

LANGUAGE DOCUMENTATION
Because a society’s history and culture is contained in its language and because as a language disappears, it carries with it everything that is contained within it, it becomes crucial that conscious effort is make to prevent a situation where the major essence of human, dignity, pride and identity is completely lost without trace. Trask (1995: 207) declares this fact when he says “the most obvious outward sign of our identity is our language”. Whalen and Harrison (2000, par, 17) also note that “important clues to human history are buried in language”. If so, it is therefore essential that languages are put in black and white to eschew such situations where they die alongside what they carry in them.
“One response to language endangerment has been the creation of a new discipline within linguistics called Language Documentation (or Linguistic Documentation). It is often said to have been catalyzed Nikolaus P. Himmeimanne” (the Hans, par, 2). Nikolaus wrote in his book, Documentary and Descriptive Linguistics (1998: 166) that “the aim of a language documentation is to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given speech community…This…differs fundamentally from language description which aims at the record of language as a system of abstract elements, construction and rules”. The Unesco’s Adhoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages (2003, par, 4)looks at language documentation as “the process by which a language is documented in terms of its grammar, its lexicon and in terms of its oral traditions(stories, songs and religious texts)”. On its part, Wikipedia states that “once a language is determined to be endangered, there are two basic steps that need to be taken in order to stabilize or rescue the language. The first Wikipedia claims is language documentation which is the process by which a language is documented in terms of its grammar, vocabulary and oral traditions like tales and riddles. The second is language revitalization which means that a language community through political, community and educational means attempts to increase the number of active speakers of the endangered language. This process, Wikipedia further states is termed language revival or reversing language shift.
To Lehmann (2001) quoted by Sascha (2007, par, 2) says language documentation “is part of the overall documentation of a culture or as part of the comprehensive presentation of a language”. Himmelmann (1998) also quoted by Sascha views language documentation as an independent field of research for linguistic and linguistic anthropology which focuses on the collection of primary data (language data) with special emphasis on endangered languages. To Sascha (2007) “the term is geared towards gathering an amount of data that is representative of the linguistic system of a language as a whole”.
Finally, language documentation is a conscious attempt undertaking to write down the linguistic property of a language in order to keep it safe from being lost and for posterity.
Language endangerment on its part is a highly dangerous phenomenon that could happen to a language. It shrinks and renders a language invalid, incapacitated and inactive; thereby forcing it to loose effectiveness. It is necessary and a matter of urgency that such a language is documented to ensure its continuous survival.

Chapter Three
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
This section presents the data collected in the field. They comprise of linguistic items or words from different fields and areas of study. They are given side-by-side their English translation. This chapter also contains the vowels and consonants description of Cham as well as the Cham basic sentence structures. The first word in each line is in Cham followed by its English translation.

WILD ANIMALS:

Namte - Animal
Namte se - Wild animal
Kullon - Crocodile
Namwalai - Hippopotamus
Namriguwon - Antelope
Pyau - Gazelle
Grima se - Buffalo
Korose - Giraffe
Namkiya - Wart-hog
Fun - Baboon
Fun - Monkey
Fun - Chimpanzee
Tu - Cobra
Kweram - Python
Dullon - Squirrel
Tu - Mouse
Tu - Rat
Gum or Killeya - Owl
Ta or Turitifi - Porcupine
Babuwe - Rabbit
Babuwe - Hare
Ta - Hedgehog
Jinijirti - Wild cat
Namkiya - Leopard
Gano - Elephant
Muglo - Dove
Turum or Dumbo - Lion
Nam ribirsan - Jackal
So - Snake
Grissinte - Viper
Buntar - Lizard
Bwilin bwilin - Agama Lizard
Guba gubari - Gecko
Sala - Monitor
Semi semi - Chameleon
Gantan - Crab
Chunboi - Frog
Bete chumboi - Toad
Kirga - Snail
Gurya yili - Tortoise
Laate - Fish
Dasar - Mudfish or cat fish
Kille - Bird
Kaita kille - Nest
Kille kwiwi - Cattle egret
Kille kuse - Crested crane
Kwakwa - crow
Kille gimi - Duck
Kolon kase - bush fowl
Weser - Falon
Weser - Kite
Jelburin - Vulture
Nam walai - Ostrich
Sengsengyi - Bat
Minte sutti - (big black)ant
Minte kwiyu - (red)ant
Mimi - ant
Minte - (small black) ant
Buri - Termite
Buri - Ant-hill
Suru da burin - Termite pile
Dugor - Insect
Yi - Fly
Mimi - Mosquito
Lauri - Tsetsefly
Bulo bulogi - Butterfly
Gulgo waniyu - Caterpillar
Gulgo - Worm
Dugor - Bug
Kilgunte - Louse
Lauri - Flea
Kutiri - Tick
Kitakeri - Cricket
Lingate - Grashopper
Lingate - Locust
Lirinte - Spider
Yuglon - Mantis
Teeri - Scorpion
Te – Sting (bee, ant,scorpion)

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Namta kai - Domestic animal
Namta chuwi - Female animal
Namta wubari - Male animal
Joi - Dog
Tu - cat
Tinga - Cattle
Gumtul - Bull
Befuri - Ox
Betinga - Calf
Koro - Donkey
Bi - Goat
Bi wuchiwe - She-goat
Gumbar - He-goat
Bebi - Kid
Ma - Sheep
Ma - ewe
Bugtor - Ram
Yiri - Pig
Yiri chiwe - Sow
Yinti kasi - Enclosure
Yiwa gimi - Water place
Damur - Stick
Yawi - Chicken
Kolong - Cock
Chul - Guinea-fowl
Klekai - Domestic pigeon
Nam - Meat
Jum - Horn
Winang - Tail
Dungar - egg
Fumni - Wing
Fumwakle - feather
Bote ta biti - Dung
Mugte or Ju - Kill
Kli - Bite
Kummarang – Ruminate
Buwon - Give birth
Totan - herd
Kusam - Milk
Buwong - Call
Musaran wa bite - Tame animals
Ka - Drive away
Gum naji - Fly
Mua - Jump

BEE KEEPING

Yite - Bee
Ni ti yite - Apiaristor bee keeper
Mumangteor Kaita yite - Apiary or bee house
Gimi yite - Honey
Munda Yite - Honeycomb
Kurgaran ka yite - Swarm of bees

FISHING, HUNT, WEAPONS

Yogi wa lati - Fishing net
Kublon - Hook/fishtrap
Ni tuwa lati - Fishman
Duwi - Hunt
Ni tari namti - Hunter
Na - Footprint
Jinia kuni - Weapon
Bak - arrow
He - water
Kun - War
Kwelam - warriors
Nub - people
Kublon - Bow
Dun - Quiver
Ya - Spear
Dunbo - Sword
Lagu - Dagger
Lagu - knife
Te lagu - Throwing knife
Gum - Club
Gursa - Gun
Finjila - Sling
Bwigate - Combat
Kun - Attack
Kursa - Dress of a warrior
Kursa - Armour
Kursa - Shield
Dala kuni - Helmet
Kwelum ba kunum - Warriors
Fun risik - Chase
Te - shoot
Bau - hit
Mau wer - Throw stone
Mau ya - Throw spear
Kur - stab
Mai atum - Over power

HORSE AND EQUIPTMENT

Mungor - Horse
Be mungor - Stallion
Dukka mungor - Bit
Jini dukka mungor - Bridle
Dukka mungor - Stirrup
Gu chiri - Saddle
Sa guchiri - Saddle bag
Umbi-Riding - whip
Lubrite-Riding - boots
Jinia mungor - Harness
Filin damungor - Flag
Filin da mungor - Banner
Ya - Lance
Ni mungor - Horseman
Gwi - Ride

PLANTS
Se - Bush
Lagar - Forest
Yir - Grass
Riank - Tree
Riank - Wood
Haki - Branch
Bwi-riank - Trunk
Sagari - root
Wula ka riank - Bark
Wang - Leaf
Filin da riank - Flower
Beta riank - Fruit
Tuk - Thorn
Jam - Grain
Namta yawi - Mushroom
Lumte - Marrow
Chulun da ni kwiwi - Pawpaw
Jini lumanyi - Orange
Mukrimuk - Lemon
Gulum - Groundnut
Gungoji - Bambaranut
Beta riank kadikadin - Kolanut
Riank ka chulu - Banana
Klanyi - Beans
Kusante - Garden egg
Laatum - Onion
Chulun - Pumpkin
Jini chulu - Melon/watermelon
Yute - Yam
Yin - Broom
Jam - Guinea corn
Jam - Millet
Jam – Late millet
Butali - Maize
Kurgote - Okra
Kausitikausi - pepper
Kwali - Red sorrel
Segete - Beniseed or sesame
Jamba nabalam - Wheat
Jam ba nubalam - Rice
Jimank ka cilu - Sugar-cane
Landir - Cotton
Wurang - Tobacco

TREES
Lulugte - Baobab-tree
Kumon - Sycamore or fig tree
Jwangte - Indian tamarind
Binri - Jujubetree
Buboite riank - Locust-bean-tree
Kumol - Silk-cotton tree or red flowers
Memte - Shea-butter or shea-nut-tree

AGRICULTURE
Kweliya - siyari-Peasant
Se - Field
Se - Farm
Se wa jiniya yalte - Garden
Se sarmini - Cultivated land
Gume jusiyer wi - Fallow
Tam - soil
Yinte kashi - Fence
Duwum - Seed
Damur wa sutan - Planting stick
Tan - Hoe
Hartang - Harvest
Yun ke yir giri - Sickle
Dumpo - Machete
Tim - Threshing
Damur da timin - Flail
Ju siyar - Cultivate or till
Ju tum - Till soil
Yir - Weed
Gula tum - Dig
Gula - Dig or excavate
Wurila - Ridge-up
Wautang - Sow
Daga - Plant(tomato)
Diga- Plant(tubers)
Digarang - Transplant
Fitang - Wet
Kusitang - Dry up
Jitang - Germinate
Ciptir - Unripe
Bitang - Mature or ripe
Tese - Pluckout
Jigtang - Pick
Butimin - Strip off
Helen - Bundle

COMPOUND
Kai - House or compound
Kanda juwi - entrance hut
Fugon ka juwi - Doorway
Fugon - Door
Kali - Fence
Kanda wete - Stone wall
Kunwor - Grass-hut
Kan - Room
Kuleya kani - Wall9of house)
Hiltang - Roof
Libang - Veranda
Kulo - Abandoned compound
Kulgurun - Bench
Dintilin - Chair
Swete - Bed
Siri - Mat
Kublo kunta - Blanket
Tan - Cornbin or granary
Duun - Rubbish heap
Nuwa gemiyu - Well
Soriya gemiyu - Vessel to draw water
Gurin harji girin - Bucket
Kinde - Storage pot
Sabonte - Soap
Fatin - Bottle
Nyu jiga kam rigi - Mirror
Bwaka tilang - Clay-pot
Tila - Mud-brick
Mutang - Build(house)
Yinamin - Sweep
Bautan wa jinni - Wash

KITCHEN
Karang/mugon - Fire
Silin da karang - Flame
Bwebi - Fire-place
Rita karangyi - Firewood
Yon - Smoke
Bugum - Ash
Yuwar - Axe
Gurda muran - Cooking pot
Ser - Water storage pot
Kubtar - Cup
Kasi - Dish
Gur/kande - Pot
Sau - Cook
Lagu - Knife
Jau - Eat
Yalte - Soup
Tirite - Bitter
Kwa - Grind
Swiyer - Work
Kubtar - Spoon
Tag - Stirring stick
Wer din kwaner - Grinding stone
Busi - Mortar
Kwang - Pestle
Sori busi - Winnow
Sori/kasi - Calabash
Nyergo - Lid(circular mat)
Gulong - Bottle gourd
Swa - Bag
Sur - Stamp or pound
Surtang - Thresh
Yumin - Winnow
Wuwe he - Drawwater
Bau karang - Strike
Dup karang - Carry fire
Yiro rite - Split
Mitang - Spread out in sun to dry

FOOD
Jini jauri - Food
Mon - Mush
Bir - Gruel
Yalte - Stew/sauce/soup
Mim - Flour
Nung - Oil
Riank - Kwiyu-Palm-oil
Nunka tinga - Butter
Brang - Fat
Nyu jig nugtinga - Butter-churn
Fugilte - Foam
Bomkanim - Salt
Kusulo - Boil
Fugilte - Bubble
Har - Roast/grill
Wutugo - Divide(share out)

BREWERY
Kanda cuwa - Beer-pot
Yogi - Filter
Cuwa - Palm-wine
Kasi/sori - Calabash for drinking
Gun - Ferment
Yogtang - Strain

CLOTHES AND JEWELLRY
Dute - Clothe
Dala - Cap
Dugge – Robe (man’s gown)
Dutita wutem - Woman’s clothes
Dug – Shirt
Bubwi - Belt
Bangti - Trouser
Kublo - Woman’s loincloth
Dug ka dur - Scarf(headcloth)
Wangnin - Head-pad
Libirte - Shoe
Damur da yomin - Walking stick
Cini - Ring
Jini kaniyu - Bracelet
Jini naniyu - Anklet
Jini kwiri - Necklace
Jini suniyu - Earring
Gisum - Beads
Batari - Needle
Maitan a jinni – Wear (clothes)
Satang - Sew
Muksate - Embroider
Muksate - Adorn
Kisantan adur - Plait hair
Hala - Rope

WEAVING/DYEING
Landir - Cotton
Satang - Weaver
Nyu sa dug rigi - Loom
Landir - Warp (thread)
Landir - Woof/weft
Kaita landir - Spinner
Riyang ka landir - Spinning stick/distraff
Mulong mulong - Multi-coloured
Fi - dye

PLAITING/BASKETRY
Kisitang adur - Plaiting
Kuto - Basket
Jidari - Mat
Duk - Rope
Jur duk - Make braid rope
Niga - Knot

LEATHER WORK/LEATHER GOODS
Biyang - Skin
Nisa jinni ri biyang - Leather worker
Jini biyang - Leather goods
Kur - Pricker/awl
Batal - needle
Kublo - Tanner

METAL-WORKING
Go kori - Smithery/forge
Sumtang - Brass-casting
Ni suni kori - Blacksmith
Bua - Furnace
Silin - Bellows
Yilba - Blaze
Julni - Charcoal
Sira - Melt
Cimmar - Iron/money
Jini kwiyu - Bronze/brass
Cinni – Tin (metal)
Cinni - Siver
Cinni - Cpper
Cinni - Gold
Jeni - Hammer
Cinni - Chain

POTTERIE
Ni mau gur - Potter
Tila - Clay
Ni furi buri - Kiln
Juri - Place of burning (pit)
Kande/gur - Pot
Kan ka gur - Handle of pot
Nyu gulon - Spout/nozzle
Fu - bake
WOOD-WORKING
Lagu - Saw
Yuwar da suli
Riank - wood
Sultang - Sculture
Banduwa - Market
Nidu wa banduwa - Chief of market
Kandi mi jinni - Shop
Duwon - Trade
Cimmar - Money/cowry
Nuwan da gunon - Ivory
Ni banduwa - Merchant
Ni wura namte - Butcher
Yatang - profit
Bunai - loss
Suni - debt
Suta - buy
Mi - Sell
Mur - Pay
Yir - Barter
Fulgo - Change(goods)
Suni - Lend
Yu suni - Borrow
Kwau - Measure
Funotang - Cheat
Yom - Journey
Mungor - Car
Mungor da kuntang - Lorry
Jini - Load
Bongtulon - Boat/canoe
Sur - Paddle
Ni sur bongtulon - Row
Yoyom - Travel
HUMAN BEINGS AND KINGSHIP TERMS
Dukkamin - Relative
Numba jirai - Ancestors
Ti - Father
Tai - My Father
Nai - My mother
Na - Mother
Bwe - Child
Yugoyi - Widow
Gitini - Widower
Dukka min - Lineage
Lang-ir - Tribe
Kilaki - Harlot
Niyulu - Blackman
Ni kwau - Whiteman
Niri buni - Poor
Niri jinni - Rich
Kewe - Slave/servant
Jarum - Prisoner
Ni totimi - Spy
Nifuwi - Guest
Cigo bwigate - Enemy
Wuri jugur - Mid wife
Gitimi - Bachalorhood
Kewete - Slavery
Bwoili - Youth
Nate - Marriage
Murjini - Dowry
Ni’a nate - Marry
Bugarte - Twin
Bwe cuwi - Daughter
Bwe - Baby
Nibari - Husband
Wuri - Woman/wife
Dagori - Co-wife
Cigira - Brother(elder)
Cisini - Brother(younger)
Cia nai - Mother’s brother
Cia tai - Father’s brother
Cigira - Sister(elder)
Cisini - Sister(younger)
Cisini - Mother’s sister
Ciciwi - Father’s sister
Nigra - Grandmother
Tagra - Grandfather
Yigra - Grandson
Nagra - Granddaughter
Senior - Cigra
Na kani - Mother-in-law
Timiri - Father-in-law
Nyile - Sister-in-law/brother-in-law/
Bwewi - Bride
Bwewi - Maiden/virgin
Bridegoom - bweli
Kumbe - Orphant

GOVERNMENT AND LAW
Nidu - Chief/King
Kwanyu - Queen
Dute - Chieftancy
Royal family - Kaita dute
Kurgaran - Reception
Dute - Title
Palace - Kaita nidu
Niyum - Obey
Ka jaubur - Conquer
Sori - Law
Lejuwi - Offence/violation
Kaita duti - Court
Ni ke yumi - Judge
Yum akaita duti - Legal case
Fung riyum - Accusation
Niya mau wuri - Plaintiff
Ni fung yimi - Prosecutor
Totan - Defence
Duute - Judment/sentence
Jamun kan - Divorce
Kute - Theft
Niku - Thief
Ni juniu - Murderer

MUSIC, DANCE, PLAY
Kur - Drum
Damur da kur - Drumstick
Ni bauri kur - Drummer
Glen’irin - Bell
Yil - Dance
Siang - Xylophon
Siang - Flute
Fir - Algeta/horn/trumpet
Ni yiyilang - Dancer
Weni - Masquerade
Wuri - Shouting
Fiang - Song
Nima fiang - Singer
Ni bari kuri - Musician
Ma fiang - Sing
Baukur - Beatdrum
Ni’a yute - Play
Jum - Horn

RELIGION
Weni ma weni - Priest
Niri weni - Rainmaker
Ni funri weni - Divinator
Ni weni - Oracle
Ni yilo - Sorcerer
Yilo - Witch/witchcraft
Weni - Ordeal/fetish
Nia ju - God
Weni - gods
Cingu - Ghost
Weni - Spirit
Jiniya kewete - Religious objects
Yunong - Charm/amulet
Gu yulgoi - Heaven
Gu bura - Hell
Fiang - Chant
Wura takka wuri - Excision
Jiri kunni - Curse
Buyate - Death
Niya buya - Corpse
Su - Grave
Digtang a su - Funeral
Gun digtan a su - Place of burial
Kanda lahadin - Ritual place
Yuro - Facial markings
Nar - Soul
Kau kute - Cut marks
Kok - Taboo
Lagriga - Book
Bara - bury
Kewete - Worship
Duwe - Avoid
Wutugo jinni - Sacrifice
Gun kur duwi - Mosque
Ni wari yum agun kurduwi - Imam
Ruwatang ayini - Prayer
Gulong - Kettle
Tunu sohi - Fast

DISEASE
Niyim ri bwaute - Medicine man
Yinang - Medicine
Sam - Poison
Wuri - Cough
Nitang akitirin - Fever
Der - wound/sore
Delinde - Scar
Der - Abscess
Ritang - Swell
Kwara - Heal
Bwaute - Disease
Bwaute wa bwitibi – Disease (of children)
Klatang a mimite - Malaria
Turi - Dysentry

TIME AND SEASON
Gusute - World
Korung - Sky
Be songyi - Star
Song - Moon
Ko - Sun
Kwetere a ko - Sunshine
Simba - Wind
Wuleng wuleng - Storm
Korung ka gwe - Cloud
Korang kafiye - Raincloud
Gimna jiu - Rain
Nyelba - Lighting
Mar - Dew
Gu - Harmattan
Jir - Year
Kaan - Dry season
Tam - Earth
Ko - Day
Ga - Place
Far - Swamp
Sila - Tomorrow
Bulun - Dust cloud (of harmattan)/fog
Twong - West
Jiong - East
Kang - Side
Flageri - Seasons
Juswang - Wet season
Fla - Time
Ri-ko - Daylight
Kigulong - Shade
Duuni - Spring
Marnang - Summer
Tamguram - Winter
Sanang - Autum
Yawi siri - Dawn
Mori - Morning
Jugur da ko - Noon
Riyu - Evening
Yu - Dusk
Kum - Night
Lugum - Darkness
Nin dari - Yesterday
Ku - Today
Cire - Last year
Hann - Next year
Kasu - Past

ENVIRONMENT
Tam - Country
Tam - Ground
Yik - Border
Bir - Town
Kai - Village
Jiwi - Road
Bwe juwi - Roadway
Juwi - Track
Nuwahe - Spring of water
La - River
La rijisong - Seasonal river
Nyiya la - Riverbank
Buksor - Marsh(land)/Swamp
Lagar - Forest
Bang - Hill
Jwi - Compound
Ying - Mountain
Fi - Plateau
La - Valley
Wer - Rock/stone
Hun - Cave
Jusai - Sand/gravel
Betuwai - Pebble
Kur - Dust
Ketire - Shine

DAYS OF THE WEEK AND MONTH
Banduwa sitami/laduwi - Monday
Banduwa bwilami - Tuesday
Banduwa dijimi - Wednesday
Banduwa bubi - Thursday
Banduwa kambi - Friday
Banduwa bwi la mangngi - Saturday
Kokunta - Sunday
Song ka kwanang - January
Song ka suwi/suwang - February
Song ka bwanbiying - March
Song ka gwarang - April
Song ka nuwang - May
Song ka nukunung - June
Song kaNyibiying - July
Song ka naruwong - August
Song ka Wurwinang - September
Song ka Kuwong - October
Song ka jiri kwanang - November
Song ka Jirsu wang - December

COLOUR TERMS
Kwiyu - Red
Yilu - Black
Kwau - White
Cintaran - Green
Karma - Blue
Bubwete - Yellow
Nyara karma - Purple
Karma kuga bwiyu - Violet
Tam tam - Bown
Karma Yiluwi - Indigo
Biyute - Orange
Me kwiyu ra kwani - Pink

NUMBERS
Kwan - One
Su - Two
Bwanbi - Three
Gwar - Four
Nu - Five
Nukun - Six
Nyibi - Seven
Naru - Eight
Wurwin - Nine
Kwu - Ten
Jir kwan - Eleven
Jir su - Twelve
Jirta bwanbi - Thirteen
Jirta gwar - Fourteen
Jirta nu - Fifteen
Jirta nukun - Sixteen
Jir nyibi - Seventeen
Jir naru - Eighteen
Jir wurwin - Nineteen
Far ta su - Twenty
Far ta su ajir kwan - Twenty one
Farta bwanbi - Thirty
Farta gwar - Fourty
Farta nu - Fifty
Farta nukun - Sixty
Far nyibi - Seventy
Far naru - Eighty
Far wurwin - Ninety
Bee kwan - 100
Beeta wurwin - 900
Nee kwan - 1000
Neeta kwu - 10000
Neeta bee kwan - 100000
Nee frang - 1000000
Nee frangte - 1000000000

The above lists are some of the linguistic items (words) of Cham Language. By no means is this exhaustive, a zillion others were not able to get entry here due the space and time constraint. As might have been notice above, some of the words do not have word to word translation, but a phrase or even a clause. For instance, butter-churn is translated ‘nyu jig nunka tinga’. Meaning, ‘an object use in extracting a cow’s butter’. Mirror is translated thus: ‘Nyu jiga kam rigi’. Meaning, ‘an object used for looking at one’s face.’ Indeed, this situation is not a problem as it only constitutes how language speakers decide to refer to an object or item.
Moreso, the possibility of certain words existing in one language and lacking in another is not a strange phenomenon. In Cham language, these English words are not found in it: Bullet, bustard, ink, penis sheath, malt, orion etc. This may relate to the fact that the language did not come into contact with such material objects or abstract concepts. Except there is a notice of an object it is practically impossible to describe or name such an item. Where the reverse is the case, every language is inherently sufficient enough to adequately describe its surroundings and the various things contained there in. But again, this does not take away the possibility of borrowing from other languages. This situation happens when two languages or cultures come into contact with each other. For example, Cham borrowed from Hausa the following words: ‘Beli’ (bail), ‘Alwalaa’ (ablution), ‘Rawani’ (turban) etc.


VOWELS AND CONSONANTS DESCRIBTION OF CHAM

This research has discovered that Cham has a total of 23 alphabets: /a/ /b/ /c/ /d/ /e/ /f/ /g/ /h/ /i/ /j/ /k/ /l/ /m/ /n/ /o/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /u/ /w/ /s/ /y/. These are the alphabets that Cham use in writing. The alphabets, /q/ /v/ and /z/ do not exist. While there are a total of 39 sounds: /a/ /b/ /c/ /d/ /e/ /f/ /g/ /h/ /i/ /j/ /k/ l/ /m/ /n/ /ng/ /ny/ /o/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /u/ /u/ /w/ /y/ /bw/ /jw/ /oi/ /ai/ /au/ /uu/ /gw/ /kw/ /mw/ /ee/ /aa/ /pw/ /sw/ /a/. Out of these 13 are vowel sounds:/a/ /a/ /u/ /u/ /e/ /i/ /o/ /ai/ /oi/ /au/ /ee/ /aa/ /uu/. While 26 are consonant sounds:/b/ /c/ / /d/ /f/ /g/ /h/ /j/ /k/ /l/ /m/ /n/ /ng/ /ny/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /w/ /y/ /bw/ /jw/ /gw/ /kw/ /mw/ /pw/ /sw/ .

Examples of vowel souds as they occur in words:
/a/
Ga - place
Ma - sheep
Ta - old

/a/
Sar - to cut
Latam - fall on ground
Tam - earth
Kablang - bow

/aa/
Taam - potash
Taan- hoe
Laatam - onions
Kaan - dry season
Saam - poison

/au/
Sau - fear
Pyau - gazelle
Sau - to cook
Mau - to stone
Fau - search

/oi/
Noi - nurse me
Koi - reject me
Toi - care for me
Yoi - escort me

/ai/
Kai - house or kind of snake
Nai - my mother
Fai - search for me
Mai - wear
Tai - father
/uu/
Duute - judgement
Kuumni - strenght
Duuni - spring

/ee/
Bee kwan - one hundred
Nee kwan - one thousand
Teeri - scorpion

/u/
Susu - beard
Gum - owl
Fur - stomach
Dute - reign

/u/
Dur - head
Su - grave
Yilu - black

/e/
Wer - stone
Se - bush
Nyele – in-laws
Bwe - child

/i/
Biyir - porridge
Yingi - house fly
Nyibi - seven

/o/
Koro - donkey
Ko - day
Yon - smoke

Out of the 13 vowel sounds 10 are pure vowels:/a/ /i/ /u/ /e/ /o/ /ee/ /aa/ /uu/ /u/ /a/. The first 5 are short vowels while the last 5 are long vowels. The remaining 3 are dipthongs:/ai/ /oi/ /au/. The two vowels, /u/ and /a/ are distinguished from /a/ and /u/ that are both obtained in Hausa and English by the straight line under them which also make them long vowels.

The 26 consonant sounds are represented thus:
/b/ as in bi - goat, bak - arrow, Bwanbi - three, bang - hill
/c/ as in cilu - sweet, cuwa - wine, cimar - money, cimi - friend
/d/ as in dun - knee, di - go, jidari - mat, dugum - blood
/f/ as in figu - new, furtasu - twenty, far - swamp, fan - monkey
/g/ as in gur - pot, lagu - knife, muglo - dove, gano - elephant
/h/ as in ham - look, hanang - skin, he - water
/j/ as in jau - eat, jir - come out, ju - kill
/k/ as in kun - war, kang - hand, kak - face, nukun - six
/l/ as in lamar - navel, sila - tomorrow, yalte - soup
/m/ as in mimi - mosquito, mu - build, mai - wear
/n/ as in nu - eye, na - leg, yinang - medicine, nar - liver
/p/ as in pyau - gazelle, pise - bend, patpat - quickly
/r/ as in teeri - scorpion, dungar - egg, hatar - hyena
/s/ as in suta - buy, susu - beard, kosi - skull, su - ear
/t/ as in tai - father, turum - lion, swete - bed, tirite - bitter
/w/ as in wuman - open, wang - leaf, wurang - tobacco
/y/ as in ya - spear, yak - give to, layuwi - electric fish
/ng/ as in nungan - tooth, yunang - tail, ngari - pig
/ny/ as in nyi - mouth, nyele - in-law, nyelba - lighting, nyibi - seven
/bw/ as in bwal - kind of spear, bwa - hole, bwi - body, bwe - child
/jw/ as in jwi - compound, jwal - kind of stick, jwonte - tamarind
/gw/ as in gwi - climb, gwal - hatch, gwali - sorrel, agwe - here
/kw/ as in kwelam - warriors, kweram - pythorn, kwa - to grind
/mw/ as in mwiya - cut into pieces, mwara - grass for roofing,mwa - run
/pw/ as in pwal - sound from breaking something.
/sw/ as in swete - bed, swiyer - work

All the consonant sounds can occur at word initial and medial, but not all can occur at word end. Only 9 out of the 26 consonant sounds can occur at word final position:
/b/ as in nab - people, dab - to take, kub - to desire.
/p/ as in kap - to turn upside down, lap - to frighten, wup - to pass suddently.
/g/ as in bug - to cultivate, sag - to bring down, jig - to remove.
/k/ as in kak - face, tuk - thorn, buk - back
/m/ as in jum - horn, saam - poison, turum - lion
/n/ as in kun - war, fan - monkey, yin - broom
/ng/ as in yunang-tail, wang-leaf, bang-hill
/l/ as in cul - guinea fowl, yil - dance, mungul - potash
/r/ as in mar - dew, tir - year, dasar - catfish

CHAM BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Cham has a basic sentence structure thus: sv (subject + verb), svo (subject + verb + object) and svoo (subject + verb + indirect object + direct object) similar to those of English. The following are the examples of Cham basic sentence structure with their English translation.
Ka tau klete. – He caught birds.
S v o s v o
Koro ka jau far. – The donkey ate the grass.
S v o s v o
Kan sau jinijauri. – I cook food.
S v o s v o
Rhada ne nai kaita jiyu. – Rhoda gave her mother their house.
S v i.o d.o s v i.o d.o
Peace ne Simon nee frangte. – Peace gave Simon one billion.
S v i.o d.o s v i.o d.o
Kata di. – They go.
S v s v
Kwanyu yi yilang. – Kwanyu dances.
S v s v
Kanan mwaa sak. – We run.
S v s v
Ka mauwuri. – She shouts.
S v s v


Chapter Four
CONCLUSION
It is lucid from the data presented that many of the world’s languages are facing serious thread everyday. Thread in form of language endangerment, language shift and language extinction. This situation is further compounded as the necessities of living keep on surfacing in all ramifications of human activities forcing people to make choices that sometimes are inimical to the survival of their language. Human beings are a central factor, an imperative and vital instrument that ensures the existence or otherwise of a language. The correlation between humans and language is such that one can not be divorce from the other without serious negative impact on each. This is particularly so because the two are mutually interdependent on each other with a serious bound that determine the completeness of each other. Indeed, when humans are devoid of language they have being rendered less human because language plays pivotal role in their existentialism. Likewise it becomes totally difficult if not impossible for a language to exist without human beings making adequate use of it in their daily activities.
A significant negative effect with a deadly impact on the survival of a language happens when the functions performed by a language is reduced to some meager events in the community. This condition comes up when other language considered to be of higher prestige is used to substitute the varied roles previously played by the former language. These situations as has being discussed earlier mitigate the efficacy of the former language which subsequently leads it to an endangered position.
It is without doubt every language is inherently imbued with inept ability to express its surroundings, environment and every thing that is within and around it. No language is in it self except that as it is forced on it by it speakers. To a large extent therefore, the users of a language are responsible to the growth or devaluation of their language. Every language has the requisite credential to live successfully and operate well unless when its users decide to make it play a second fiddle.
Consequently, all endangered languages like Cham needs to be revitalized and put back to track by their very people, so that its full utility will be well harness and exploited not only for the benefit of sons and daughters lf the immediate language users but also for the benefit of the world’s linguistic canon. Otherwise, these languages risk extinction and the people will wake-up one day without defining who they are, without knowing their true identity and without any sense of their historic pass that will help them shape them their present and prepare them for the future.

RECOMMENDATION
There is a need, an urgent one to inform local people and indeed people in general, but particularly the younger generation by the authority’s responsible federal, state and local level that it never pays for one to draw his language to the dustbin while embracing other language for the sake of whatever it possesses. They should be well conscientized to come to the awareness that their indigenous language is their means of identity and pride because within it lies their beliefs, cultures and value system. Learning another language is not evil, but caution should be exercise that it does not or replace or take away their indigenous language.
Traditional institutions should be at the centre of this; they should inform their people to be mindful of the fact that their local language can give them the progress and advancement they need if they make it to. If other languages can, theirs too can; this is because the intrinsic values of all languages are the same. China and other Asian countries are not known today because they speak English or French, but because of how they are able to use the property of their language to engineer creativity and productivity among themselves.
Finally, it is also recommended that government should make it compulsory for the teaching and learning of an indigenous language in its primary community. This will help in the propagation of the language as children grow and socialize in it. The language should not only serve as a course of study, but also as a means of instruction since it is globally acknowledged that children learn faster in their own language. In this regard, government (using the prominent members of the society) should encourage the production of relevant literatures in the language so as to serve the purpose of preservation, reading, writing and learning in the language. If you can not operate in your language, then you are not fully empowered.

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